CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND
In
social life, language is an integral part. As a medium of communication, early
recognition of the language for children is necessary to enable them do
interaction with others in society. Language generally refers to our abilities
in speaking, but in the particular circumstances of the language itself is a
sign that used certain people due to their inability to speak. Deaf or hearing
impaired in medicine is a physical condition characterized by a decrease or the
inability to listen to the sound. This disorder can be caused by several
factors both from outside and inside the body. Hearing impaired is usually
followed by the person's inability to speak, because of the inability of a
person to listen to what people said lead deaf in condition by unknowing the
language.
In
this paper the author will explain about how deaf people communicate and the
methods used to teach deaf children are able to communicate in social
community. The purpose of this paper is that an ordinary people can understand
the sign language of the deaf when in certain circumstances we are required to
communicate with them.
B.
FORMULATION
OF PROBLEM
1. What
the use of sign languange as a true languange?
2. What
the use of oral languange?
3. What
the use of written languange?
C.
PURPOSES
OF WRITING
1.
We know about the use of sign languange
as a true languange
2.
We know about the use of of oral
languange
3.
We know about the use of written
languange
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. THE USE OF SIGN LANGUANGE AND GESTURE
1. The
Criteria for Sign Languange as a True Languange
a. A
Formal Criterion for a True Languange
You may wonder
and justifably, whether those signs truly are part of a languange or are just a
collection of gestures that lack the sophistication of a languange based o
speech. A sign languange is a true languange because the languange system allow
a signerto comprehend and produce an unrestricted number of grammatical sign
sentences. This feat can be accomplished with a limited number of signs
(vocabulary) and a system (syntax and semantics).
b. An
Informal Criterion for a True Languange
An
informal criterion for a true languange one that is simple and readly
understandable. This criterion must allow for a difference in the physical
means of communication: signing rather than speech; but this is not an
essential aspect of languange. Languange must depend on some physical mode for
its acquisition and use but that mode need not be limited sound. The mode can
be visual, as in signing, or even touch as in languanges used by the
deaf-blind.
2. Complete
and Incomplete Sign Languange
Research
on sign languanges seriously began for the most part in the 1960s when linguist
and psycholinguist addressed themselves to this newly discovered area. The
findings showed that signers of such sign languanges as American Sign
Languange, French Sign Languange and others can indeed communicative in sign whatever
is expressed in speech. A sentence like that shown at the end of the previous
section can be expressed through all of these languanges.
Other
sign languange s may be incomplete syntactically or limited in terms of
vocabulary. Such incomplete sign languanges are typically found in developing
countries, although in even some developed nations, sign languange may suffer
from deficiencies.
3. The
Classification of Gestures
Before
considering the essentials of sign languange, it will be useful to examine a
related means of communication that is used by hearing persons: gestures. Once
the role of such gestures is understood, they wiil not be confused with the
signs of a sign languange. It is necessary for the reader to make this
distinction.
a. Gestures
without speech
1) Gestures
using arms, head and torso
We use gestures to
communicate a variety of types of messages,as, for example in indicating greetings: hello, goodbye – by moving
the hands and arms etc. Gesture are often similar but seldom universal. Coming
upon another community’s gestures may lead to confusion for and outsider. Most
gestures are spesific to cultural, linguistic, or geographic areas.
2) Fatial
gestures
Fatial movements are
used everywhere to convey a wide range of emotions and feelings. States of
confusion, attention, distress, love, annoyance, admiration, belligerence,
doubt, bewilderment, determination, an so on, can all be conveyed in context by
facial expressions, supplemented, or not, with hand movements and body posture.
3) Iconic
gestures
The kinds of gestures
having a close relationship between gesture and meaning are called iconic gestures. There are meaningful
but more abstractly iconic gestures as well – for example the shaking of hands
to signify ageement in the closing of a business deal.
b. Gestures
with speech
1) Beat
Beat is common gesture,
where one’s hand or finger is kept in motion and is synchronized with what a
person is saying. These gestures are constant in form. In making beats, people
will move their hands up and down or back and forth. This tends to be done in
the periphery of gesture space, such as to the side, not in the central
portion. The purpose of beat according to McNeill (1987), is basically to
emphasize the discourse function of concurrent speech. Beats do not add to the
content of description or story but rather serve to emphasize the introduction
of new characters, the setting of scene, the occurrence of some event and the
like. Beat does not always signal new information and many others beats may occur
in a single sentence. The use of beat is more pronounced in some cultures than
in others.
2) Iconic
gestures
According to McNeill
iconic gesture occurs just once within each clause. Such gestures occupay the
central gesture space and can add to or make more explicit some part of a
deescription or a story line. The gesture is made while the important portion
of the sentence (italicized) is being uttered. Making note of what people do
when they talk, can be a very interesting pastime. It is suprising what one can
learn by doing this.
4. Speech-Based
Sign Languanges
Sign
languange use hand, face, or other body movements in a three dimensional space
as the physical means of communication. There are two types of of sign
languange : one that relates to ordinary speech-based languange and one that is
independent of ordinary languange. Speech-based
sign languanges represent spoken words and the order of these words or
morphemes as they appear in ordinary spoken langaunges, such as Swedish,
English, and French. Independent sign
languanges (ISLs) are not speech-based and not mutually intelligible. These
sign languanges are independent of the ordinary spoken languange, having
developed their own words and grammatical systems for the production and
understanding of sentences.
Sign
languange based on the speech of ordinary languange can be of two different
kind: one which represents the morphemes of speech and one which represent
spelling (orthography).
a. Finger
Spelling: Letter by Letter
According
to this system words are represented by spelling them out letter by letter in
terms of individual signs, where each sign represents a letter of the alphabet.
Hand and finger configurations are used to indicate letters, such as making a V
with the index and middle fingers or an O with the thumb and index finger.
Words and entire sentences can be communicated in this letter-by-letter method.
There
are both one-hand and two-handed systems of finger spelling. Users of both
systems can sign relatively quickly but both processes are rather laborious.
The two-handed system, however, is
faster and provides more easily identifiable letters. The down side is that it
does not allow a hand free for other uses. The Rochester School for the Deaf
was perhaps the last school to use this method and that was some years ago. It
was called the Rochester Method and was typically used in cojunction with
speech (Scouten, 1963, 1967).
Finger
spelling may be learned with or without the knowledge of reading that is based
on a speech-based languange. A person who knows how to read will be able to
learn and use finger spelling quite easily. Most profoundly or even many
moderately hearing-impaired persons have not learned the prerequisite reading
knowledge, which typically involves knowing the speech-based languange. One
must leran to recall print before one can spell.
Theoretically,
finger spelling could be learned as a native languange. This can be done
without the child ever knowing the origin or significance of those letter signs
in the system of reading and writing of a speech-based languange.
b. Morpheme
by Morpheme (MnM) Sign Languanges: ‘Signing Essential English’ and ‘Seeing
Exact English’s
Some
deaf schools advocate a sign system which uses a whole sign for each speech
word or meaningful part, i.e. morpheme. Such systems are directly based on the
spoken form of the speech-based languange. Since these systems represent the
morphemes of true speech-based languages, these systems therefore can be said
to be true languanges.
Signing
Essential Languanges and Seeing
Exact English are typical of this type of sign system. These languange
systems follow in sign the exact linear flow of spoken words. The learner
learning such a system need not know the speech-based languange on which the
system was created in order to learn it. The learner learns the signs in
context as would be done by the learning of an independent sign languange such
American Sign Languange. The fact that such signs reflect the morphology of a
speech-based languange is not a piece of information which is necessary for its
use.
1) Advantages
of MnM systems
a) Learner
simultaneosly acquires the morphology and syntax of both the sign and related
speech-based languange.
b) Easier
for an adult hearing person to learn an MnM than an ISL.
2) Serious
disadvantages
a) Children
do not learn MnM easily
b) MnM
is not preferred by the deaf community
B.
THE
USE OF ORAL LANGUANGE
These
have been the proponents of the teaching of speech, the view called the Oral Approach.
The Oral Approach has a worthy aim, to teach the hearing-impaired to produce
and comprehend speech so that they can comuicative with the hearing community.
1. The
Relationship of Oral Languange and Hearing-Impaired
a. Oral
Approach sucessful with the less Hearing-Impaired
The
Oral Approach focuses on the teaching of speech production. Its secondary focus is on speech comprehension. In this
approach children from the age of 2or 3 years onwards are specially trained in
the skill articulating speech sounds. Also, its not uncommon nowadays to have
computerized equipment that displays sounds and assists in the teaching. Many
children do respond and o acquire a fair ability to speak. The successes are
with children who have only a moderate hearing loss. Those with more sever impairment typically fare
poorly.
b. Oral
Approach fails with the severely Hearing-Impaired
A
great problem with the Oral Approach is that it tends only to work for a
portion of the hearing-impaired population. Research shows, that the less
people can hear, the less they will be able to produce and comprehend speech.
Relatively few children who are born with a severe of profound hearing loss
acquire any significant degree of speech. Even those with a lesser hearing loss
often do not acquire sufficiently clear pronounciation to be understood by
ordinary hearing presons.
There
is a good reason that persons who are severely hearing-impaired do poorly in
producing speech. Without having heard the targets sounds, one would have no
basis for comparative judgements.
Speech
teachers of the deaf are trained to assist the deaf person in articulating
speech sounds. The task is exeedingly difficult for the deaf and
severely-impaired, as one may might expect, and most deaf speakers produce
speech which is largely unintelligible to ordinary hearing persons are not
congenitally mute but mute because they do not know how to utter appropriate
speech sounds.
2. Speechreading
and Total Communication
a. Speechreading
is not easy
The
comprehension of speech is usually fostered through both exploiting any
residual hearing that learners may have and the teaching of speechreading,
commonly known as ‘lipreading’. With speechreading, an adept person can
interpret about half of what is said, which, given the great amount of
redundancy in ordinary speech, is enough to guess most of the content. The
better the deaf person is in hearing, the better that person will be in both
speaking and speechreading.
b. A
sensible approach: Total Communication
Because
of the large number of failing cases as a result of the application of the Oral
Approach, many hearing-impaired persons were not only unable to communicate
with the hearing community but were unable to communicate adequately with their
hearing-impaired friends and colleagues. It was this tragic situation, one that
continues in many places today, that convinced many educators of the deaf that
educational programmes should include sign languange in their curriculum along
with speech training. These programmes, which generally go by the name of Total Communication, spread in the 1970s
in the United States, Canada, and other countries. While Total Communication is
now widely accepted in many countries, there is still resistance in many to
admiting sign languange into educational curriculum for the hearing-impaired.
In
addition to Total Communication an additional type of languange, Written
Languange, must be taught. This is the written form of the speech-based
languange which is prevalent in the deaf
persons’s country.
C.
THE
USE OF WRITTEN LANGUANGE
1. Advantages
of the learning of written languange
Six
important advantages for the hearing-impaired:
a. The
learning medium is appropriate
Perception
of written stimuli depens on vision, a medium in which the normal
hearing-impaired are fully capable. Languange can be acquired without any
special obstacle on the basis of the visual medium.
b. No
new knowledge need be acquired by insructors
Because
the instructors already know how to read, they already know written languange.
Parents and teachers of the hearing-impaired do not have to learn the written
languange in order to teach it.
c. Instruction
can begin in nfancy
Parents
of hearing-impaired children can teach their children written languange at home
during the children’s most formative years. Children as young as 3 months of
age can be exposed to written languange in a natural way in the supportive
comfort of their own home.
d. All
hearing-impaired children can beneifit
No
effort devoted to teaching written languange will be wasted. All children can benefit from
it, since whatever is learned improves their level of literacy.
e. Written
languange acquisition can facilitate speech
By
learning written languange, the syntax and vocabulary that underlie speech are
also learned. Acquisition of written languange therefore can accelerate oral
instruction.
f. Written
languange teaching is compatible with other approaches.
Written
languange can be taught in conjunction with either sign languange or the oral
method, without any injury to the integrityof those approaches.
2. The
Programme for Teaching Written Languange
a. The
principles of Teaching written Languange
For
the learning and teaching of written languange, two basic theoretical
principles may serve as guides: (1) words are best acquired as conceptual
wholes in a relevant context, and (2)
phrases and sentences are best acquired in a relevant context through
induction, just as hearing children learn their first languange.
1) What
to teach? The important things in the chuld’s experience
To the extent that
hearing-impaired children experience the same environment as hearing children,
the hering-impaired can acquire the same concepts relating to that environment.
2) Written
languange comprehension, not production, is primary
In acquiring languange,
hearing pesons first learn to comprehend speech before they produce it
meaningfully. As far as the hearing-impaired child who is learning written
languange is concerned, a similar primacy of comprehension over production
obtains. Comprehension consists of the interpretation of written forms, and
production consists of the writing of such forms. The muscle and coordination
control which is needed for the use of a writing implement such as a pencil
develops much slower than the articulators used in the production speech.
Children typically only begin to gain control of a writing implement around the
age of 3 years, and it takes some years before they can write numbers of
sentences without tiring. This is unfortunate, for hearing-impaired children
could benefit greatly
through using such a
communicative means of expression during their early years.
3) Word
learning
Once a hearing-impaired
child child begins to acquire concepts of objects, actions, events, and
situations,that child is ready to acquirevthe written labels for these concepts. The ideal way for a young
hearing-impaired child to learn words in their written form is in much the same
way as young hearing child does: exposure to words in conjunction with the
objects, situations, and ongoing events in the environment. While it is easy
for a parent to produce spoken words while conducting the affairs of daily
life, it is difficult for written words to the produced in that situation.
Since conditions for learning cannot be arranged so that hearing-impaired
children can learn written languange on their own in the ordinary course of
daily events , as do hearing children, some degree of artificially must be
introduced into the learning situation.
4) Inappropriateness
of direct letter learning
When learning children
experience speech words in the home, they experience them as wholes: the words
dog and cat, for example, are pronounced as wholes.the child is not tayght the
component sounds first, for example /d/, /o/ , and /g/. The children accomplish
this through a natural analytical process of their own, which is induction. Since evidence shows that
analytical and coceptualizing processes of hearing-impaired children do not
differ from those of hearing children, hearing-impaired children may be
expected to be able to distinguish on their own the shapes of the letters and
to identify morpheme components of words in the course of learning whole
written words.
5) Greater
ease of learning meaningful written units
Although a word is
longer and more complex than any of its component parts, research evidence
indicates that the learning of a meaningful whole word is easier than learning
of its meaningless components. Insofar as the learning of abstract words is
concerned, no special principles need by followed. The hearing-impaired child
will learn to acquire such words is essentially the same way as does the
hearing child, that is on the basis of relevant environmental experience and
through a process of hypothesis testing. Abstract words like ‘idea’
‘like’, beautiful’,
‘pain’, ‘true’, and ‘though’will naturally begin to be acquired after children
come to realize the essential principle of languange, which is that words can
be used to express ideas. This basic pricinple is acquired in the process of
learning concrete words. After this, the child is ready to label more abstract
notions.
6) Phrase
and sentence acquisition
Just as hearing
children learn the syntax of the languange without direct instructions by
exposure to phrase and sentences used in a relevant enviromental context,
hearing-impaired children learn the syntax of written languange in the same
way. Parents of hearing children do not teach their children syntatic rules.
b. The
Phase Programme for Teaching Written Languange
1) General
instructions
Four teaching
instructions are common to all phases
a) The
instructor should point to the written words in a left-to-right fashion.
b) Children
should not be required to sign or say what is written
c) Children
should not be required to write as part
of the programme
d) Children
should enjoy written languange activities
2) The
four phases of the teaching programme
a) Word
familiarization
The purpose of this
phase is to acquaint children with the forms of written words and to make them
aware that different written words relate to differentt object. Word
familarization games and activities should be continued until the child can
identify a written word without the presence of any clue. For example word,
words are removed from a number of objects and then the child is given one of
the words. The child must find the object to which it was attached. If this is
done corectly with a number of different cards, the child can be said to know
how to identify and interpret the writing on the card. The instructor should
simply carry on with Familiarization until that time when the child gets the
idea that certain words belong to certain objects.
b) Word
identification
In this phase, the
children learn which particular written words associated with particular
objects. The difference between this phase and the preceding one is that this
requires the use of long-term memory. Here the children must remember a
particular written configuration and remember what particular object it
represents. No clues are given as was done in the Familiarization phase. This
phase is continued even after phrases and sentences are introduced. Phrases and
sentences may be introduced once children have acquired a sufficient number of
nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs so that phrases or sentences can be formed
with them.
c) Phrase
and sentence identification
This phase is similar
to Word Identification except that larger linguistic units are introduced.
Learning such units promotes the apprehension of meaning, which word-by-word
reading tend s to reduce. Phrase and sentences are to be composed of the single
words that have already been learned.
d) Paragraphs
and stories
The paragraph is the
largest meaningful written linguistic unit, consisiting of a sequence of two or
more sentences that are semantically and syntatically related to one another.
The prior phase dealt only with phrases and sentences isolation. Just when
paragraph teaching should be introduced on a serious basis is difficult to say.
Some knowledge of words, phrases, and sentences is certainly required so that
proceeding through a book is made easy, but what this amount should be is a
matter of conjecture. As children progress linguistically and intellectually,
their advancement sholud be reflected in the books they are given. Selections
should be carefully made from them untill the time when they are able to make
suitable selections on their own. It sholud be noted that although this phase
is concerned with the teaching of the text from books, it is not recommended
that the introduction of books be delayed until this phase is reached. Children
can enjoy and learn much about books even when in the Word Familiarization
stage; parents can read books to children.
CHAPTER
III
CLOSING
SUGESTION
Similarly, we can describe the material that is the subject of this
proposal, of course, there are still many shortcomings and weaknesses, because
they lack the knowledge and the lack of reference or the reference has to do
with the title of this proposal. Authors much hope dear readers, providing
constructive criticism and suggestions for the perfect proposal to the author
in the writing of the proposal in the next opportunities.
Hopefully this paper is useful for author in particular are also dear
readers in general. Such review this time, may be useful for you and also
inspire.
REFERENCES
Steinberg,Danny D, et al. 2001. Psycholinguistics : Languange, Mind,and World. London: longman
